The Donation of Constantine

The Donation of Constantine  (Donatio Constantini, or sometimes just Donatio) is one of the best-known forgeries in European history. It is a medieval document which pretends to have been written in the early fourth century, giving large areas of land and related political power, as well as religious authority, to Pope Sylvester I (in power from 314 – 335 CE) and his successors. It had a little immediate impact after being written but grew to be heavily influential as time went on.​​ Origins of the Donation We’re not certain who faked the Donation, but it seems to have been written circa 750-800 CE in Latin. It might be connected to the coronation of Pippin the Short in 754 CE, or the grand imperial coronation of Charlemagne in 800 CE, but could easily have been to aid Papal attempts to challenge Byzantium’s spiritual and secular interests in Italy. One of the more popular views has the Donation being created in the mid-eighth century at the behest of Pope Stephen II, in order to aid his negotiations with Pepin. The idea was that the Pope approved the transfer of the great central European crown from the Merovingian dynasty to the Carolingians, and in return, Pepin would not just give the Papacy the rights to Italian lands, but would actually ‘restore’ what had been given long before by Constantine. It appears that the rumor of a Donation or something similar had been traveling around the relevant parts of Europe since the sixth century and that whoever create d it was producing something people expected to exist. Contents of the Donation The Donation begins with a narrative: Sylvester I was supposed to have cured Roman Emperor Constantine of leprosy before the latter gave his support to Rome and the Pope as the heart of the church. It then moves into the granting of rights, a ‘donation’ to the church: the Pope is made the supreme religious ruler of many great capitals—including the newly expanded Constantinople—and given control of all the lands given to the church throughout Constantine’s empire. The Pope is also given the Imperial Palace in Rome and the western empire, and the ability to appoint all kings and emperors ruling there. What this meant, if it had been true, was that the Papacy had the legal right to rule a large area of Italy in a secular fashion, which it did during the medieval period. History of the Donation Despite containing such a massive benefit to the papacy, the document appears to have been forgotten in the ninth and tenth centuries, when struggles between Rome and Constantinople raged over who was superior, and when the Donation would have been useful. It wasn’t until Leo IX in the mid-eleventh century that the Donation was quoted as evidence, and from then on it became a common weapon in the struggle between the church and secular rulers to carve up power. Its legitimacy was rarely questioned, although there were dissenting voices. The Renaissance Destroys the Donation In 1440 a Renaissance Humanist called Valla published a work which broke the Donation down and examined it: the ‘Discourse on the Forgery of the Alleged Donation of Constantine. Valla applied the textual criticism and interest in history and classics which grew so prominent in the Renaissance to show, among many criticisms and in an attacking style we might not consider academic these days, that the Donation was not written in the fourth century. Once Valla had published his proof, the Donation was increasingly seen as a forgery, and the church couldn’t rely on it. Valla’s attack on the Donation helped promote humanist study and in a small way helped lead to the Reformation.

Bed Breakfast Marketing Plan - 1349 Words

Marketing amp; Organizational Plan: Lester Estate’s Bed amp; Breakfast Inn Marketing amp; Organizational Plan Lester Estate’s Bed amp; Breakfast Inn Discuss the marketing research process for the product/service of the new venture. â€Å"The most effective way to begin is for the entrepreneur to sit down and make a list of the information that will be needed to prepare the marketing plan (Hisrich, Peters, amp; Shepherd, 2010, p. 227).† Market research will be conducted to get a better understanding of the bed and breakfast industry and competitors. The owners will also be able to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the bed and breakfast industry. Gathering market research data will allow Lester Estate’s Bed amp;†¦show more content†¦Therefore, the owners hope to attract beach tourists. Even though the bed and breakfast is forty-five minutes away from Myrtle Beach, there are some tourist wait to make hotel arrangements when they get to the beach. The desired benefit of bed and breakfast will be to give tourist the opportunity to rest and make accommodations for their beach vacation. The other market segment the owners will target during the off season is the local community members. The bed and breakfast will be the ideal place for local business owners to host business meetings and accommodate their out of town guest. The bed and breakfast will also appeal to local patrons who are interested in hosting baby showers, bridal showers, and romantic getaways. Discuss the marketing mix components: product strategy (position, branding), pricing strategy, distribution (marketing channel) concept, and promotional (marketing communication) strategy. The product strategy of the marketing mix will describe the bed and breakfast and the service that will be available to customers. Guests of Lester Estate’s Bed and Breakfast will enjoy the uniqueness and elegance of the facility. 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Economics and Business Risk Information Free Essays

Risk Information Rating is an interactive process relying primarily in gathering information from the issuer and supplementing it with strategic information obtained from outside independent sources. The entire process Is aimed at evaluating (a) Financial Risk and (b) Business Risk Information with regard to (a) Is generally provided by the company requesting for rating and, only when necessary, such Information Is corroborated or complemented by Information from other sources. However, comprehensive information with regard to (b) is not readily available from any identifiable source. We will write a custom essay sample on Economics and Business Risk Information or any similar topic only for you Order Now PACRA has, therefore, proceeded to develop its own database consisting of economic data by industrial sub-sectors. Additionally, it continuously monitors macroeconomic developments and important government policy changes (like fiscal adjustments) for determining their likely impact on specific sectors and companies. PACRA does not assign unsolicited ratings. This policy is based on our sensitivity egarding the motivation for such a practice: globally, unsolicited ratings have come under criticism as they seem to be a means of pressurizing recalcitrant entitles to subject themselves to rating. Again, the value of credit rating flows from the Interactive nature of the exercise. Thus, unless the rated entity has an opportunity to share the reasons for any delinquent performance In the past and Its view on prospects, the rating opinion may not be reliable. The rating process begins with a careful review of an entitys published information. From this review, analysts (normally two, the lead and support analyst, are assigned to each rating assignment) determine what additional data are needed and a detailed questionnaire is sent to the client. An initial rating assessment is made and discussed internally. A discussion agenda is then prepared for a meeting with the client company’s senior management. The meeting Is wide-ranging, covering the company’s flnanclal position, earning trends, operating practices, competitive standing, future prospects, the economic environment and many other Issues that an have a bearing on PACRA’s assessment. In order to ensure full understanding of their position, companies entrust PACRA with confidential information, which is not disclosed in rating reports but which is certainly taken into account when assigning the ratings. In determining the initial ratings for an institution, a rating proposal is prepared based on the information gathered at the Management Meeting with the company, and is presented to the rating committee (comprising the Chairman, Managing Director, senior executives and the lead analyst). A draft rating report is then prepared and sent to the client for verification of the accuracy and confidentiality of the Information In the report. upon the client’s approval, the one-page summary of the report Is made public and a press release of the assigned rating Is Issued. The detailed rating report Is sent to the client. placed on ‘RatingWatch’. The rating is then upgraded, downgraded or maintained after assessing the impact of any such change. How to cite Economics and Business Risk Information, Papers